Virtual space and social media studies

Abstract Introducion: Artificial intelligence, as one of the contemporary disruptive technologies, has transformed the structures of societies and industries. However, the rapid proliferation of this technology has raised questions about its management and oversight. AI governance, beyond technical aspects, requires attention to ethical, social, and legal dimensions in order to prevent negative consequences such as bias, privacy breaches, or discrimination. The swift advancement of artificial intelligence has challenged traditional regulatory frameworks that were designed for information and communication technologies. The speed of algorithm development has outpaced legislators’ ability to enact up-to-date regulations, bringing challenges such as algorithmic bias, privacy violations, and potential misuse. Among the foundational and influential theories in this domain are Algorithmic Governance/Regulation and the artificial intelligence ecosystem theory. The lack of global consensus on definitions and approaches, coupled with policy fragmentation, has made the formulation of effective frameworks difficult. 
Methods: Using a systematic protocol, we searched major databases (2017–2025) for “AI governance,” retrieving 130 records. After de-duplication, screening, and criterion-based appraisal (English; direct governance focus; excluding first-generation symbolic AI), 63 studies remained. We extracted bibliographic/methodological data and qualitative evidence on ethics, policy, regulation, and operationalisation. Iterative thematic analysis-constant comparison, memoing, open-to-axial coding, return-to-text checks, and audit trails-ultimately produced 297 initial codes, consolidated into 16 organising codes and four overarching themes.
Results: Findings converge on four areas. (1) Ethics: prioritising transparency, explainability, bias mitigation, and meaningful human oversight to sustain trust. (2) Policies and outlooks: countries pursue divergent strategies-EU law-centric, US trust/ethics-led, and China industry-plus-social-stability-yet share goals to balance innovation with safety. (3) Coordination: persistent gaps remain in common definitions, interoperable standards, data-sharing mechanisms, and dispute-resolution, exacerbated by geopolitical frictions. (4) Governance domains: interlocking technical, ethical, and legal layers operate across national, sectoral, and organisational levels and throughout the system lifecycle, operationalised through risk classification, independent audits, model/data cards, incident reporting, procurement clauses, and other enforceable controls that translate principles into practice..
Discussion: Grounded in the review’s evidence, we propose a “multi-layered governance based on risk and trust” model anchored in four pillars-ethics, policy, governance layers, and application. It operationalises values as measurable, enforceable controls; applies proportionately across technical, ethical, and legal layers; spans national, sectoral, organisational levels and the lifecycle. Practical levers include risk classification, independent audits, red-teaming, model/data cards, incident reporting, procurement clauses, and rollback protocols. The model reduces principle-to-practice gaps, improves accountability and interoperability, and preserves innovation under safety floors.

Abstract Cyber diplomacy in Iran’s political literature is regarded as a key instrument in international relations and in strengthening the country’s position at both regional and global levels. This form of diplomacy encompasses a set of activities and strategies that enable the Iranian government to engage with other states in the digital domain and manage cyber threats effectively. Given Iran’s geopolitical position and the numerous challenges it faces in the cyber arena-including sanctions and cyberattacks-the necessity of adopting a comprehensive and coordinated approach to cyber diplomacy has become increasingly evident.
This research aims to examine the conceptualization of cyber diplomacy and to analyze the main challenges as well as practical strategies for leveraging it to enhance and expand the country’s diplomatic capacity. Employing secondary analysis and a systematic review of prior research, the study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach through library-based methods. In analyzing the challenges and obstacles to Iran’s cyber diplomacy, the first major factor identified is sanctions and technological restrictions. These sanctions not only limit access to advanced technologies but also constrain Iran’s ability to employ such technologies to strengthen its cyber diplomacy.
The second major obstacle concerns security issues and global cyber threats. Iran has experienced extensive cyberattacks from hacker groups and foreign states in recent years, which has intensified the need to strengthen defensive systems and develop effective strategies to counter such threats. The third challenge relates to the governance of cyberspace. Domestic policies-such as extensive filtering and restrictions on internet accessibility-reduce the country’s capacity to engage digitally with other nations and hinder the effective utilization of cyber diplomacy opportunities.
Moreover, one of the most critical challenges is the lack of coordination and internal planning in the implementation of cyber diplomacy. This form of diplomacy should be pursued comprehensively and in coordination among various state institutions, including the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Communications, security agencies, and private-sector entities. In essence, cyber diplomacy represents not only a necessity for Iran but also a major challenge in the digital era. Countries capable of effectively employing this tool to enhance international relations and counter cyber threats will be able to play more prominent roles in the global system.
In light of these challenges, the cyber diplomacy of the Islamic Republic of Iran requires strategies that integrate defensive measures with international cooperation to strengthen its position at both regional and global levels. Regionally, Iran can enhance its capacity to address cyber threats by forming cyber alliances with neighboring countries and utilizing indigenous capabilities. Establishing common defensive frameworks and supporting technological startups within the region can reduce dependency on foreign technologies. Furthermore, leveraging regional social media platforms to disseminate cultural and political messages will reinforce Iran’s soft power among Islamic countries.
At the global level, Iran should seek a more active role in international organizations related to cyberspace, such as the International Telecommunication Union, to increase its influence in shaping global cyber governance regulations. Collaboration with neighboring states and global powers such as Russia and China to promote a multipolar order in cyberspace will further enhance Iran’s deterrent capacity. Additionally, academic and technological exchanges with advanced countries, combined with public diplomacy initiatives aimed at improving Iran’s international image, can contribute to strengthening the country’s global standing.
Overall, the integration of defensive strategies and international cooperation, along with the effective use of soft power and local capacities, plays a vital role in advancing Iran’s cyber diplomacy. This approach can pave the way for sustainable security and greater influence within the global cyber landscape. Iran thus requires a strategic and coordinated cyber diplomacy framework to seize emerging opportunities and overcome existing challenges.

Abstract Introducion: The remarkable growth of video-on-demand (VOD) services to date, as well as predictions regarding their future-particularly in comparison with statistics on other forms of content-clearly demonstrates the significance and prominence of this medium. In the VOD market, data show that the number of users, the time spent watching films, and corporate revenues are all increasing day by day. However, this industry also faces numerous challenges that require appropriate regulation. In Iran, the issue of how to regulate VOD platforms has been repeatedly raised and debated in both academic and political circles. Yet, there has never been a consensus on the legal status, institutional structure, or responsibilities of the relevant authorities.
This article seeks to examine global experiences-specifically, three countries-in the field of VOD regulation in order to assist Iran’s policy-making system in taking more informed and up-to-date actions concerning the governance of VOD platforms.
Method: In this study, a documentary research method was employed for data collection, while a descriptive-analytical method was used for data analysis. This approach allows for the objective and qualitative description of concepts in a systematic manner, typically applied to written, oral, and visual materials on a given topic. The countries under study were selected to represent diverse and even contrasting regulatory approaches. Accordingly, China was chosen as a representative of the control governance model, the United States as a representative of the liberal approach, and the United Kingdom as a representative of the European legal control approach.
Results: The findings of this study indicate that each country has adopted a regulatory model suited to its domestic conditions and has established one or more regulatory bodies with distinct structures and functions.
The United Kingdom demonstrates a fully converged and centralized regulatory system through Ofcom, combining infrastructure and content oversight and extending authority to foreign VODs. The United States features a fragmented, multi-agency model with overlapping jurisdictions and reliance on self-regulation. China, by contrast, maintains a centralized, party-controlled regulatory structure (NRTA) that integrates ideological supervision with administrative and technical regulation across national and regional levels.
In summary, the UK model emphasizes convergence and coordination, the US model reflects fragmentation and pluralism, and the Chinese model represents centralized control and ideological integration.
The existence of a comprehensive legal system (including macro-level media policies and explicit regulations), the frequent updating of legal rules, a shift away from a sectoral perspective toward regulatory convergence, the establishment of research arms under regulatory bodies to conduct future studies and address both theoretical and operational needs, greater alignment between the regulations governing video-on-demand services and those governing broadcast services, and the application of new technologies in the field of regulation are among the key findings of this research.
The proposed recommendations include: “Facilitating dialogue on new developments among the managers of decision-making bodies,” “Developing macro-level media policies,” “Formulating a unified legal system encompassing all types of media activities with a comprehensive perspective on the national media landscape,” “Applying the ex post monitoring model under specific conditions,” “Revising the division of responsibilities among regulators to enhance coordination and cooperation,” and “Moving toward an ideal form of convergence by merging regulatory bodies and establishing a specialized media regulatory organization with the participation of diverse stakeholders.”

Abstract Introduction: The growing convergence of artificial intelligence (AI), advanced media technologies, and hybrid warfare tactics has transformed the nature of modern conflict, shifting its core from physical territory to the cognitive domain. Information now functions as a strategic weapon rather than a supporting tool. AI’s rapid advances in data processing, behavioral analysis, and automation have made it central to both military and informational strategies.Despite its strategic significance, there remains a lack of a comprehensive framework to analyze the complex interplay between AI, media, and hybrid warfare. This study fills that theoretical gap by proposing and evaluating the “Media Matrix” as an integrated analytical model. The central research question asks: How has AI revolutionized media strategies in modern warfare and influenced public perception and strategic decision-making?
Methods: Using a qualitative meta-synthesis approach, this study systematically analyzes credible academic and strategic sources to develop a unified theoretical model. The meta-synthesis method was chosen due to the conceptual novelty of the “Media Matrix” and the qualitative diversity of existing literature, which limits the use of quantitative techniques such as meta-analysis. The study argues that the traditional divide between military and non-military conflict is increasingly blurred, demanding an integrated theoretical lens. A systematic search was conducted across major databases (WoS, Scopus, ProQuest, SpringerLink, and national repositories) covering January 2018–January 2025 to capture recent developments in AI and warfare. Key terms included “Media Matrix,” “Hybrid Warfare,” “Cognitive Warfare,” “Artificial Intelligence in Media,” and “AI-Driven Information Operations.” After screening for relevance and duplicates, 27 key sources were selected for in-depth analysis, ensuring transparency and theoretical rigor in the proposed framework.
Results: The study reveals that AI has transformed information warfare into a core element of modern hybrid tactics through three interlinked mechanisms:
• Automation of Targeted Content: AI enables large-scale, personalized production and dissemination of narratives and misinformation (e.g., deepfakes, customized media) to maximize audience impact.
• Execution of Psychological Operations (PsyOps): Using advanced analytics, AI identifies cognitive and emotional vulnerabilities to deploy precisely timed campaigns that fuel polarization, distrust, and social instability.
• Big Data Analysis for Cognitive Mapping: AI’s data-processing capacity allows the creation of detailed cognitive maps of audience beliefs and behaviors, continuously optimizing information operations.
Thus, AI transforms media from a passive communication tool into a dynamic “cognitive battlefield”, where the aim is to shape perceptions, beliefs, and strategic decisions. Acting as the “cognitive engine” of the Media Matrix, AI reconstructs reality and adapts narratives in real time to target psychological profiles. The ultimate goal-Cognitive Warfare-focuses on mental and emotional infiltration rather than physical destruction, reshaping realities and influencing strategic decision-making. The Media Matrix framework integrates three core components-media technologies (as infrastructure), AI (as the cognitive engine), and hybrid warfare tactics (as strategy)-into a cohesive model supported by multiple theories: Agenda-Setting (algorithmic influence on public attention), Hybrid Warfare (fusion of kinetic and non-kinetic conflict), Cognitive Warfare (mind as the ultimate battlefield), Dual-Use Technology (AI’s constructive/destructive duality), and Social Media Weaponization (digital manipulation of opinion and politics).
Discussion: A major part of the study addresses the profound ethical, legal, and accountability challenges arising from the rapid militarization of AI. The swift deployment of autonomous systems has far outpaced global regulatory mechanisms, leaving a critical governance gap concerning human oversight, ethical limits, and responsibility for AI-driven decisions. This regulatory vacuum risks triggering a “cognitive arms race” and enabling unchecked military exploitation, potentially destabilizing the global information order. The study calls for urgent international regulation, robust ethical oversight, and a multi-layered governance framework encompassing technical standards, operational norms, and legal accountability to ensure responsible AI use in military contexts. Ultimately, the research concludes that the Media Matrix framework offers an essential lens for understanding modern conflict, where superiority is defined not by territorial or kinetic power but by control over cognitive and perceptual domains. It highlights the urgent need to establish global AI standards and strengthen public media literacy as key defenses against emerging cognitive and informational threats.

Abstract This study aimed to investigate the impact of social networks on the formation of social identity among young people, focusing on students. Today, in the field of cyberspace studies, due to the undeniable effects of this space on the meaning-making, identification, and communication processes of users, analyzing the contexts, mechanisms, and consequences of these effects is of great importance. Sanghar County, with its predominantly young population and the presence of several active academic units, is a valuable example for studying this phenomenon; especially since its demographic composition and cultural conditions can reveal specific patterns of online interactions and identity formation. Despite the significant volume of research globally, in Iran, and especially in local cultural contexts, there are still important gaps. Most studies have either examined the overall effects of social networks or have focused solely on psychological consequences, without addressing the multifaceted dimensions of social identity. Sonqor County, with its predominantly young population and the presence of several active university units, is a valuable example for studying this phenomenon; especially since its demographic composition and cultural conditions can reveal specific patterns of online interactions and identity formation. Accordingly, the main purpose of this study is to analyze the effects of cyberspace on the social identity of university students in Sonqor City. 
The research method was designed and implemented as a survey using a structured questionnaire consisting of four sections (demographic information, amount and type of use of social networks, dimensions of social identity, and challenges and opportunities). The statistical population included a number of students from Songor universities, and stratified random sampling was performed. The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical methods, including correlation tests and comparative analysis.
The results showed that there is a positive and significant relationship between the amount of use of social networks and various dimensions of social identity - including a sense of belonging, social acceptance, and self-expression. It was also found that although these spaces provide opportunities for the development of social capital and cultural interactions, they can also cause challenges such as identity crisis and reduced adherence to indigenous values. The findings of this research can help policymakers and cultural managers in designing educational and media programs tailored to the needs of young people. The findings of this study emphasize the dual and transformative role of social networks in the formation of the social identity of participating students. On the one hand, these spaces provide opportunities to strengthen the sense of belonging, promote self-expression, expand communication, and increase social awareness; and on the other hand, they also bring challenges such as social anxiety, identity crisis, and reduced self-confidence. These results show that the impact of social networks on social identity is neither purely positive nor entirely negative, but multidimensional and dependent on the way of use, the type of interactions, and the content consumed. Accordingly, the findings provide valuable insights for educational policymakers, cultural managers, and researchers to develop balanced strategies to maximize the benefits and reduce the negative effects of these spaces. The findings of this study also provide deep insights into the multidimensional role of social networks in the formation of the dimensions of the social identity of participating students. Analysis of data collected from 300 students and comparison with national and international research evidence suggests that these platforms can simultaneously foster social relationships, self-expression, and awareness, while also posing significant psychological and behavioral challenges. These results highlight the dual nature of social networks and emphasize the need for balanced, evidence-based educational policies and programs. 
The results of statistical analyses emphasize that the intensity and direction of these effects depend on the usage pattern, the type of content consumed, and the level of media literacy skills of users. This means that targeted, balanced, and informed use of social networks can enhance positive effects and reduce potential harms. This is in line with evidence from domestic and foreign research that has emphasized the pivotal role of media literacy and conscious management of online presence in improving the quality of social interactions. Given the duality of opportunities and threats, it is essential that educational policymakers, cultural managers, and youth activists develop comprehensive strategies for the responsible use of social networks. These strategies can include systematic training in media literacy skills, creating local platforms with rich content that is appropriate for national culture, and strengthening psychological and social support to reduce negative effects. In addition, holding workshops and interactive programs among students, professors, and communication professionals can help raise awareness and empower users in managing their social identity. From a research perspective, this study, focusing on the student community of a specific city, has explained the pattern of influence of social networks in the local socio-cultural context. However, future research on more diverse samples, comparisons between different cities, and qualitative analysis of users’ lived experiences can provide a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of influence of this phenomenon. 

Abstract Introduction: Virtual social media, emerging in the late 1990s, have enabled high speed synchronous and asynchronous communications, making vast amounts of information readily accessible to users. They rapidly evolved from temporary tools into lasting and influential phenomena through the broad dissemination of data, attracting millions of users worldwide, expanding audiences at high speed, and exerting a profound impact on individuals’ real life environments. Building a positive brand image enhances consumers’ perceived value and strengthens their inclination to purchase domestic products. Targeted and scientifically based advertising in such media can secure the success of domestic brands against global giants like Nike and Adidas. In today’s market, sportswear choices are influenced more by brand than by any other factor; most customers prefer well known foreign brands even when domestic products match them in quality. This tendency slows the growth of domestic brands and pushes the industry toward crisis. Challenges such as unsuitable regulations, political shifts, weak commercial infrastructure, and unfavorable market conditions persist. Research shows that online advertising in sports is among the most effective strategic tools for fostering positive attitudes and favorable brand images. Accordingly, the central question of this study is: What is the effectiveness of sportswear brands’ advertising on Instagram according to the AIDA model?
Research methodology: This study is applied in purpose and descriptive analytical in nature and method, conducted as field research. The statistical population comprised all followers of domestic sportswear brands’ Instagram pages. Given the population size exceeding 100,000, convenience sampling was adopted, and in accordance with Morgan’s table for very large populations, 384 participants were selected-the minimum acceptable number for statistical analysis. Data were collected using both library and field (survey) methods. The library approach gathered theoretical foundations and prior studies through note taking from credible sources, while field data were collected using Kardlou’s (2010) 23 item questionnaire assessing social media advertising effectiveness via the four sequential components of the AIDA model: attention, awareness/interest, desire, and action. The instrument’s validity and reliability were confirmed in Kardlou’s master’s thesis. Data analysis employed SPSS version 27 and inferential statistical tests. A one sample t test and binomial test (proportion test) determined advertising effectiveness, with seven effectiveness categories grouped into “effective” and “ineffective” ranges. The binomial test ratio was 28.5%, with the mid point value set at 4. Friedman’s test ranked factors after initial testing. The online questionnaire link was shared with Instagram users until 384 responses were reached; 12 defective questionnaires were removed, yielding 372 valid responses for analysis.
Findings: The one sample t test results revealed a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of all study components and the benchmark score of 4 (P < 0.05), with all means exceeding the benchmark, indicating the overall effectiveness of social media advertising for sportswear brands. The primary research variable also showed a significant positive difference from the benchmark, confirming the favorable impact of such advertising on customers. Binomial test findings demonstrated that social media advertising was sufficiently and significantly effective in attracting customer attention. The same test confirmed substantial effectiveness in the other AIDA model components: creating brand awareness and interest, generating desire and motivation, and stimulating purchase action. Friedman test results ranked purchase action as the most effective component, achieving the highest mean rank, followed by attention in second place, and awareness and interest in third. Hypothesis testing summary indicated that Instagram advertising was sufficiently effective in all four AIDA components-attention, awareness/interest, desire/motivation, and purchase action-with P values below 0.05. According to binomial test probability results, all four components had more than 50% effective impact, with purchase action showing the strongest effect at 76%.
Discussion: The findings indicate that social media advertising significantly and sufficiently attracts customers’ attention to sportswear brands. The positive and significant difference between the calculated means and the benchmark score confirms Instagram’s effectiveness in capturing user interest. High quality online content enhances brand awareness, provides hedonic motivation, and stimulates customer engagement. Increased brand interaction, in turn, elevates brand awareness, strengthens motivation to act, and promotes greater participation. Brand awareness positively influences perceived customer value and purchase intention. The study reveals two main paths through which Instagram advertising affects offline purchase intention: (1) superior online content quality, which generates pleasurable motivation and engagement, ultimately driving offline purchase behavior; and (2) brand interaction, which boosts brand awareness and thereby strengthens offline purchase intention. Maintaining an active online presence improves both content quality and interaction, reinforcing brand awareness and purchase tendencies. Advertising featuring well known sports figures (influencer marketing) also positively impacts willingness to purchase in the sportswear sector, with attention, interest, desire, and purchase action serving as key drivers. However, advertising for Behara Company (Chaklez products) fell short in effectiveness. The research further confirms a positive relationship between advertising effectiveness and brand equity, with dimensions such as recognition, enthusiasm, preference, persuasion, and purchase contributing to brand equity growth. Given rapid technological advances and expanding social media use, Instagram advertising demonstrates strong promotional potential.